The Issue Of Trans People - 1900 Words

â€Å"Ninety percent of trans people report experiencing harassment, mistreatment or discrimination on the job. Forty-one percent of respondents reported attempting suicide, compared to 1.6% of the general population† (Adams and Goodman ). Although many of the views are clashing, what it comes down to is morality vs. the struggles that arise around society accepting trans people. If any other group of people had these problems to face, it would be more apparent. So, what causes this? Is there a way that these drastic numbers can be lowered? Are we doing everything we can to help trans individuals? In discussions of Transgender Rights some view the issue as trans people deserve the rights given to any other human being, should be able to†¦show more content†¦Although most evidence looks to be in support over the idea that protection over trans people are needed, it is easy to see why many feel that transgender people are confusing to society. Before an in depth analysis of Transgender Rights can happen though, one must first understand some key information. Firstly,â€Å"Transgender- a term coined in the 1980’s and sometimes shortened to â€Å" trans†, is defined as anyone who identifies with a gender other than the one they were assigned to at birth† (â€Å"Transgender rights.†). The definition of transgender is fundamental to understand because many people wrongly believe that â€Å"The term Transgender is a general term made by transgender activists to describe heterosexual cross-dressers, homosexual transvestites or drag queens, and transexuals ( individuals undergoing so-called sex operations), and she males† (Traditional Values Coalition). It is essential that people are taught about transgender people, as confusion regarding them often leads to preventable violence towards them. Also, transgender people should be allowed to use the bathroom that matches the gender they identify with, and own valid ID with their chosen names and proper gender marker. â€Å" It is estimated that about 41 percent of transgender people attempt suicide in their lives, as opposed to 5 percent of the general population† (â€Å"

Cloning to Save Lives - 608 Words

Another reason as to why human cloning technology still has a low success rate is due to the ethical reasons given by the government. According to NCSL in the article â€Å"Cloning Human Laws,† fifteen out of fifty one states have banned reproductive cloning. In addition, the banning of reproductive cloning will not support scientists with the funds for human cloning research, as well as prohibit the donation of human zygotes. This is significant because if there is no support from the government for funding and permission to research, then the human cloning technology will progress slowly and illegally in the United States. Contrary, Dr. Silver Lee believes that the cloned baby will be no different than children who are already born today. It will look like one parent and it will have many of the same behavior predispositions as the one parent. Dr. Silver Lee argues that there is no difference between a naturally reproductive baby and a clone baby. Children usually look like their parents so it does not matter if the baby is a clone or not, it will be treated like a child. Conversely, there are other reasons that cloning should be allowed in the fertility clinics. Cloning human beings could also be used to replace a loss one or to clone an exact replica of someone one we desired. In other words, many people will want to have babies with someone famous. Contrary, that is less likely to happen. According to Alissa Gauna who is the author of the article â€Å"You Stole My Steez,†Show MoreRelatedTaking a Look at Human Cloning848 Words   |  3 PagesHuman cloning is the process of taking an emptied human embryo and inserting the human DNA or the DNA of any living creature. After all this the embryo will grow and form as if it were in the womb and conceived normally. Human cloning is not just some make believe idea, it is here. Human cloning can save countless lives through stem cell research or by finding cures for diseases. Human cloning is not ju st cloning people depending on the cells in the embryo the embryo will grow to become those selectedRead MoreThe Consequences Of Cloning In Frankenstein By Mary Shelley1470 Words   |  6 PagesThe invention of cloning, both a blessing and a curse, can possibly enable humanity to reach eternal life. An invention is the creation of a device developed after a study or an experiment, in the hopes of benefiting society. The novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley is about an inventor, Victor Frankenstein, who creates life that he later rejects. His invention results in consequences for both himself and his creation. Both cloning and the creation of the monster was made to benefit and advance society’sRead MoreTherapeutic Cloning Essay1412 Words   |  6 Pagesordinary lives if it was not for the medical taboo created by just the word â€Å"Cloning†. Millions of people view cloning as unethical and unscrupulous, however, majority of these people have never researched read eve n one article of the amazing scientific principle. While the creation of human beings through cloning is wrong, the process of therapeutic cloning, the completely different procedure of therapeutic cloning is completely moral and could save millions of people. Therapeutic cloning is a credibleRead MoreThe Cloning Of Human Cloning1449 Words   |  6 Pagesit is said that the first person to live up to 1,000 years old is alive today. However, many humans have a fear that this power of creation is fashioning an earthy trinity of man, science, and technology. Many of those who believe and fear this idea are apprehensive of various upcoming technological advances. After the first successful cloning experiment of a sheep, Dolly, scientists have looked into human cloning and the benefits it would offer humanity. Cloning of humans would give parents who areRead MoreEssay on A Case for Cloning1447 Words   |  6 PagesOne reason people protest the idea of cloning is because may are mystifi ed as to how it could be used and what its purposes can be. I know that if it were your child, you would use every possible measure to keep them alive. The fact that we, as humans, might be able to figure out how to clone so that lives could be saved is extremely exciting and inspiring. On the other hand, there is a time and a place for everything, including research. While cloning is justifiable in certain circumstances, I wouldRead More Cloning Essay723 Words   |  3 Pages Is Human Cloning Ethical? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Imagine that you have just been diagnosed with lung cancer. You have been told you have six months to live unless you can find two replacement lungs. But, you are told and realize you are a clone and have to give your life to save another. Is that ethically right? Would you, the original human want to do it? I feel that cloning human beings is ethically and morally wrong. Cloning seems to be a big issue in the world today. The issues ofRead MoreShould Human Cloning Be Pursued? Essay810 Words   |  4 Pagessome movies, cloning in real life doesn’t produce a full grown exact replica of someone. A type of cloning that occurs naturally is when identical twins are born (â€Å"What Is Cloning?†). Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a type of cloning that has to be done in a lab. In SCNT they take the nucleolus out of an egg cell, replace it with the nucleolus of a somatic cell (body cell with two complete sets of chromosomes), and make the egg c ell divide into a blastocyst (â€Å"What Is Cloning?†). There areRead MoreThe Cloning of Humans1398 Words   |  6 PagesYou can’t will a maxim where there is a diminishment of human dignity. Cloning humans with identical genetic makeup to act as organ donors for each other is a diminishment of human dignity. Therefore, cloning of humans is immoral. Human cloning is a practice which includes taking an egg from a human female, removing the nucleus, substituting it with the genetic material from the nucleus of another adult cell, and using electric shock or chemical bath to hoax the egg into thinking it has beenRead MoreAmazed by Cloning1544 Words   |  6 PagesCloning is an amazing complex thing! In this paper a person will learn some basic cloning information, the history of cloning, good and bad things about cloning, human cloning, and bringing back endangered species with the use of cloning. Information includes the processes and some animals that have been cloned. The history includes the different cloning achievements starting with the first artificial twin. The good and bad parts will of course talk about the pros and cons of cloning. HumanRead MoreThe Intense Debate Over Cloning753 Words   |  3 Pagespeople to realize many things their ancestors would not have even dreamed of. Cloning is absolutel y one of them. Having identical twins without being born on the same they is like a dream come true. But what is cloning exactly? Cloning ,particularly in biotechnology, is the process used to create copies of DNA fragment, cells, or organisms. Attempts at cloning might go back to much earlier times such as the attempt made by Hans Dreisch

Evaluating Marketing Performance Motivation

Question: Discuss about the Evaluating Marketing Performancefor Motivation. Answer: Introduction The function of marketing is facing a most important challenge within organizations for subsistence with a decline the motivation of marketing function. Headcount and budget of marketing function are losing due to this resulting. Liability of marketing has been recognized as the main cause of an organizations influence of marketing loss. This connection between influences and accountability o marketing, it remainders unknown what liability of marketing is supported by the marketing metrics and what benefits adding to influence of marketing which can be recognized through growing the accountability of marketing. The current accountability of marketing literature makes available a wide collection of marketing metrics which provides a slight direction on how to arrange or instruction these metrics. Maybe their organization overlooking on marketing metrics would like to use the function of marketing. The value of the function of marketing to the business community which is justified by t he marketers for their vital need and for further study into how businesses might become more liable. This experimental study has two points, no one is easy to classify the instruction of marketing matrices that fund to the accountability of marketing and no two is to classify profits to the function of marketing its actually liable in the count to the marketing influence's profits. How Metrics Related to Decision Making The accountability of marketing idea is critical marketing figure of an organization, it has been presented contribute to influence of marketing of an organization. The current literature is mainly reliable in how it expresses marketing accountability, normally being accepted the ability to connect marketing activities economic and/or non-financial results (Gaskill, Adam, and Hume Winzar). The Marketing Association of America explains accountability of marketing as the responsibility for the methodical management of an organization of their procedures resources of marketing and procedures to realize calculable gains in profit on marketing venture and increased marketing productivity through preserving quality and growing the worth of the company. The request for better accountability approaches from an extensive range of investors, including shareholders. The function of marketing can give a statement about the upcoming threats in future through becoming liable and then improve its i nfluence of senior management. The nonfiction is clear that the nonfiction is clear that dealers want to be extra liable they provide little direction on metrics marketing experts should usage to validate on marketing accountability. Changing Phase of Metrics Perhaps no propelling action has been under more prominent weight to demonstrate its commitment to affiliation fortunes than publicizing. Showcasing master affiliations concentrate vivaciously on the yield of care as the sensible measure. Whatever is left of the connection is worried with what a state of care means the degree that money related outcomes. Standard propelling plausibility get some information about, plans reaction examination, has accomplished broken disclosures ("Metrics For Linking Marketing To Financial Performance"). Most reviews that have tried to take a gander at the estimation of progressing have demonstrated a negative return. Considering all things, this ought not to stun. While the impacts of publicizing are normally entire arrangement, standard propelling adequacy take a gander at, by concentrating on short-run deals reaction examination, has acknowledged defective exposures. At the present time publicizing impacts are a great part of the time gagged by rega rd degrees of progress. Regardless, progressing has entire arrangement, multi-period impacts. Separating its effect on a very basic level as for decisively well ordered, quarterly, or even quarterly courses of action reaction will without a doubt limit the effect of publicizing. This tussle fight among right away treatment and entire arrangement multi-period ideal conditions of client acquisition and brand-building exercises is laid out. Displaying works out, for example, publicizing purchaser movements might be utilized to make care and trial/encounter and, at long last, and client affiliations or brands. These can then be utilized to make future publicizing and exceptional bits more valuable ("Metrics For Linking Marketing To Financial Performance"). The multi-period effect of brand-building rehearses makes a beguiling issue. While the cost of most showing exercises, for example, client gaining are expensed paid for in the period they are accomplished, longer-term benefits sensibl y suggest that they ought to be overseen as theories and amortized after some time. That is, some propelling say in the brand-building or thing dispatch stage may be considered as meander publicizing, while other reinforce progressing may be viewed as a reiterating inflicted significant damage. Be that as it may, this bookkeeping norms verbal experience is not slanted to be settled here or when in doubt without pleasant research among bookkeepers and marketing experts. Regardless, it is imperative that top association pay for certain brand-and market-working over different periods and not expect that each showing undertaking will have positive right away happens. To fulfill this, it is significant we have measures not simply of shortterm results as got from propelling blend models additionally the entire arrangement impacts. Right when an affiliation places resources into a plant, there is an impressive resource which shows up on the books for which there is a known disintegrating c ourse of action. While bookkeeping hones don't yet permit us to show the entire arrangement impacts nor to spoil showing usages there is no reason we ought not have such entire arrangement measures and see these estimations as resources of the firm. Key Sets of Metrics Funding to marketings deficiency of accountability is the absence of an easy to deal with a number of operational measure to the marketing metrics which is related to the activities of marketing's consequences. Marketing metrics indicates the performance of the business or something related to business. Present metrics are frequently impractical and problematic for maximum marketers to implement successfully. In spite of these problems, marketing metrics remain still a priority for groups with an assessment of marketing administrators performance near 80% observed the performance of marketing metrics as a major priority. Proposals for exactly how to calculate the marketing performance are usually split among followers of financial procedures and who backup a large range of procedure that include specific nonfinancial measures (Hanssens, Dominique M. et al.). User-friendly metrics is nonfinancial have been recognized in the market share, customer reliability or preservation, customer productivity, lifetime value of the customer, excellence service or perceived manufactured goods, relative price. Directly not related to the financial consequences and value of stockholders have been raped by nonfinancial metrics which is seen as to be an implement of difficult measure. Marketing metrics might allow to the function of marketing accountability demonstrate and consequently gain extra influence with organizations. Nonfinancial and financial metrics have shared available extensive menu by some studies (KOSAN, Levent). Missing Metrics In studying the current literature, there are three opportunities ascended for future study that could speed up the renewal influenced of marketing with the organization. There are many present marketing metrics which is indicated by the literature. This is easy to identify the Implement of marketing accountability matrices which would contribute to an expert of marketing to link with their events to organizational consequences. A small study occurs that appearances at the extra at the extra influence of marketing for marketers which rise up their accountability level. Influence of marketing has been measured by using some self -reporting models of marketing experts. The senior managers who had the huge extent to control over the name, the source of allocation procedure and the profession of senior finance. The approval of a sample edge of the profession of senior finance might at supported in extending the present research and identify the increasing importance of finance profession als and superficially of organizations. Together, talking these three breaks in a literature might allow practitioners of marketing to instrument the metrics wanted to relation their actions to organizational consequences and moreover discover now unknown profits related with marketing responsibility and influence, ultimately support the marketing task to inverse the failure in its responsibility and influence with the organizations. What new Metrics were needed? It is extensively known in a literature that the function of marketing incapability prove a connection between actions and organizational consequences is a big challenge to future of marketing. The conclusions of this method support in extending the present literature over recognizing the specific metrics presented to the function of marketing to show a connection between their activities and organizational consequences through the procedure of nonfinancial and financial metrics when relating with their finance coworkers ("THE 6 MARKETING METRICS YOU SHOULD KNOW"). Data analysis and the field study discovered three subjects that marketing accountability like nonfinancial metrics, financial metrics, and profits of the marketing function. What Further Analysis was needed? Though the influence of marketing has been broadly recognized such as the most important benefit to the function of marketing is the rise in marketing responsibility. Study into other probable profits of a growth is rare in marketing accountability. Pointing the second study question is what profits for the function of marketing are going their accountability level. This research discovered the three profits in adding to the influence of marketing that can be found through a growth in marketing responsibility. The three extra benefits are timely internal supports, cross-functional support, and additional resources. Straight pointing the challenges resourcing in front of the function of marketing, the outcomes recommend that in conditions where the function of marketing is supposed to finance function such as being accountable, it could possibly receive other resources with funding and headcount. The following defendant interview estimate best part of this perceptibly they will develo p more reserve and get extra things that they want (Mutonyi, Sarah, and Amos Gyau). Though, defendants were very perfect that extra resources would only complete presented to marketing it was a verified relationship among the functions of marketing. This extra resourcing discover extends the present literature such as added resourcing had earlier only been related to the influence of marketing. In a carefully related conclusion, it was created that where the function of marketing could demonstrate responsibility, they could advantage from increased entree to backup from some extra functions with the group. Analysis Approach Per Segment Two themes recognized easily use metrics that the function of marketing might be used to growth their accountability level. Another theme recognized the possible benefits presented to the function of marketing through improving accountability level. Two metrics found the essential for nonfinancial and financial accountability measures which are used like short-term pointers of upcoming financial performance (Mintz, Ofer et al.). An amazement discover was the barring of customer fulfillment such as the measure of marketing responsibility. This is maybe be connected to the product being completely finance experts. The omission of stockholder importance as the measure of marketing responsibility when the method used a model of finance experts adds to support that the stockholder value is moreover difficult to simply use smooth by finance experts. Conclusion The present marketing responsibility research stream the study surveyed the backgrounds and significances of marketing responsibility and create through using commercial and non-commercial metrics that the task could more eagerly determine how their activities lead to affirmative administrative results. Moreover, this study positively found that profits away from marketing effect were presented to the marketing task through refining their level of responsibility, with supplementary assets and more appropriate support from the economics purpose that being recognized as extra benefits. Merging the answers of the study Moorman, Rust, Verhoef and Leeflang, the researchers have constructed an abstract model to demonstrate the backgrounds and significances of marketing responsibility that represents the metric of marketing that builds temporary as backgrounds of marketing responsibility, with welfares to the marketing task and business presentation being imagined as an importance of market ing responsibility. Future research requiring to authorize and check the abstract idea that the three zones for future research arose which are to build function of marketing capabilities in the finance area and analysis of data, measure user friendly development for separating the marketing task's effect on stockholder value, the process of building relationships in marketing function and marketing cross function. This research is an examining nature which integrally results in study limits. 11 respondents are the big restriction of this research in a size which sample is small that decreases the generalizability of the results. The practice of marketing metrics is the condition to the particular; hence, a future investigation could spread this investigation with economics expert to industry segments beyond the skill sector which has been broadly used in the researches of responsibility marketing. Finance professionals of Australian-based comprised the sample which the European, As ian and American markets cannot be reflective. The limited use of economics specialists was measured and stopped from the rising reputation of the finance task within administrations that reported to the self on the view of CEOs to what exact marketing metrics outcomes. References Gaskill, Adam, and Hume Winzar. "Marketing Metrics That Contribute To Marketing Accountability In The Technology Sector".SAGE, 2017, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2158244013501332. Hanssens, Dominique M. et al. "Consumer Attitude Metrics For Guiding Marketing Mix Decisions".Amazon Aws, 2013, https://ai2-s2-pdfs.s3.amazonaws.com/5a8d/3936fe70920b7894a54dc907be7370234a49.pdf. KOSAN, Levent. "Accounting For Marketing: Marketing Performance Through Financial Results".International Review Of Management And Marketing, vol 4, no. 4, 2014, pp. 276-283. https://www.econjournals.com/index.php/irmm/article/viewFile/955/pdf. "Metrics For Linking Marketing To Financial Performance". 2002, https://bear.warrington.ufl.edu/CENTERS/MKS/invited/Metrics%20for%20Linking%20Marketing%20to%20Financial%20Performance.pdf. Mintz, Ofer et al. "Metric Effectiveness And Use In Marketing-Mix Decisions: Correcting For Endogenous Selection Effects And Ex-Ante Expectations". 2016, https://faculty.bus.lsu.edu/omintz/RightMetric.pdf. Mutonyi, Sarah, and Amos Gyau. "Measuring Performance Of Small And Medium Scale Agrifood Firms In Developing Countries: Gap Between Theory And Practice".University Of Copenhagen, 2013, https://ageconsearch.tind.io//bitstream/163339/2/Conceptual%20paper-Sarah%20Mutonyi.pdf. "The 6 Marketing Metrics You Should Know".Modassic Marketing, 2014, https://modassicmarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/2014.2-6-Metrics-to-know-.pdf.

Structural functionalism free essay sample

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. [1]This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole. [2] This approach looks at both social structureand social functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions. A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as organs that work toward the proper functioning of the body as a whole. [3] In the most basic terms, it simply emphasizes the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system. For Talcott Parsons, structural-functionalism came to describe a particular stage in the methodological development of social science, rather than a specific school of thought. We will write a custom essay sample on Structural functionalism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page [4][5] The structural functionalism approach is amacrosociological analysis, with a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole. [6] Structural Functionalism Theory Structural functionalists believe that society leans towards equilibrium and social order. They see society like a human body, in which important organs to keep the society/body healthy and well[4]. Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed when nearly everyone accepts the general moral values of their society. Hence structural functionalists believe the aim of key institutions, such as education, is to socialise children and teenagers. Socialisation is the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need as productive citizens. Although this aim is stated in the formal curriculum[5], it is mainly achieved through the hidden curriculum[6], a subtler, but nonetheless powerful, indoctrination of the norms and values of the wider society. Students learn these values because their behaviour at school is regulated [Durkheim in [3]] until they gradually internalise and accept them. Education must, however perform another function. As various jobs become vacant, they must be filled with the appropriate people. Therefore the other purpose of education is to sort and rank individuals for placement in the labour market [Munro, 1997]. Those with high achievement will be trained for the most important jobs and in reward, be given the highest incomes. Those who achieve the least, will be given the least demanding jobs, and hence the least income. According to Sennet and Cobb however, â€Å"to believe that ability alone decides who is rewarded is to be deceived†. [3] Meighan agrees, stating that large numbers of capable students from working class backgrounds fail to achieve satisfactory standards in school and therefore fail to obtain the status they deserve[7]. Jacob believes this is because the middle class cultural experiences that are provided at school may be contrary to the experiences working-class children receive at home [8]. In other words, working class children are not adequately prepared to cope at school. They are therefore â€Å"cooled out†[9] from school with the least qualifications, hence they get the least desirable jobs, and so remain working class. Sargent confirms this cycle, arguing that schooling supports continuity, which in turn supports social order. [3] Talcott Parsons believed that this process, whereby some students were identified and labelled educational failures, â€Å"was a necessary activity which one part of the social system, education, performed for the whole†[7]. Yet the structural functionalist perspective maintains that this social order, this continuity, is what most people desire[4]. The weakness of this perspective thus becomes evident. Why would the working class wish to stay working class? Such an inconsistency demonstrates that another perspective may be useful. Conflict theories are perspectives in social science that emphasize the social, political, or material inequality of a social group, that critique the broad socio-political system, or that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservativism. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis of society. Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the 4 paradigms of sociology. For example Salomon, the leading sociologist. [citation needed] Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. Whilst many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict. Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. This perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the greatest political, economic, and social resources. When consensus exists, it is attributable to people being united around common interests, often in opposition to other groups. According to conflict theory, inequality exists because those in control of a disproportionate share of society’s resources actively defend their advantages. The masses are not bound to society by their shared values, but by coercion at the hands of those in power. This perspective emphasizes social control, not consensus and conformity. Groups and individuals advance their own interests, struggling over control of societal resources. Those with the most resources exercise power over others with inequality and power struggles resulting. There is great attention paid to class, race, and gender in this perspective because they are seen as the grounds of the most pertinent and enduring struggles in society. Whereas most other sociological theories focus on the positive aspects of society, conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret an â€Å"elite† board of regents raising tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local college as self-serving rather than as beneficial for students. Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain considerable interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marxs idea that the key conflict in society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society. Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in preserving society and social order. Social exchange theory is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. Social exchange theory posits that all human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. The theory has roots in economics, psychology and sociology. Social exchange theory features many of the main assumptions found in rational choice theoryand structuralism. Social exchange theory is based on a central premise: that the exchange of social and material resources is a fundamental form of human interaction. With roots in earlier theories developed in cultural anthropology, neoclassical economics, and psychology, the school of thought on social exchange developed at the UW focused on how interaction patterns are shaped by power relationships between individuals, and the resulting efforts to achieve balance in exchange relations. For example, in the first of a series of experiments dealing with social power and equity in exchange networks, the researchers studied factors and constraints that affected the use of power in a simulation of negotiated trade agreements. The simulation involved 112 male and female participants in a specially developed computerized laboratory and communication network. Each of eight subjects was connected to three others as bargaining partners, forming two separate four-person networks. Subjects sought to increase their profits by entering into trade agreements for resource units. Subjects could pursue either formal or informal negotiating procedures before a transaction was completed. The experimental design allowed the researchers to study power, equity, and the creation of commitment during these bargaining processes. Symbolic Interaction, refers to the patterns of communication, interpretation and adjustment between individuals. Both the verbal and nonverbal responses that a listener then delivers are similarly constructed in expectation of how the original speaker will react. The ongoing process is like the game of charades; only it is a full-fledged conversation. [1]Essentially, the theory can be viewed as a framework for understanding how individuals interact with each other and within society through the meanings of symbol. Symbolic Interactionism Theory Adapted from Scott Plunkett’s Course Pack Overview  · Symbolic interaction theory describes the family as a unit of interacting personalities.  · This theory focuses attention on the way that people interact through symbols: o words, gestures, rules, and roles.  · The symbolic interaction perspective is based on how humans develop a complex set of symbols to give meaning to the world (LaRossa Reitzes, 1993).  · Meaning evolves from their interactions in their environment and with people.  · These interactions are subjectively interpreted through existing symbols.  · Understanding these symbols is important in understanding human behavior.  · Interactions with larger societal processes influence the individual, and vice-versa.  · It is through interaction that humans develop a concept of larger social structures and also of self concept.  · Society affects behavior through constraints by societal norms and values.  · Self concept also affects behavior.  · Symbolic interactionism’s unique contributions to family studies are 1. families are social groups and 2. that individuals develop both a concept of self and their identities through social interaction.  · Symbolic interactionism is the way we learn to interpret and give meaning to the world though our interactions with others. Major Contributors (LaRossa Reitzes, 1993)  · George Herbert Mead (1934) often cited as the main contributor to symbolic interactionism  · Never published his theory  · Blumer, his student published it after his death o Meaning evolves from gestures (an action which produces a response in another) o Language is a set of shared meaning o Taking the role of the generalized other defined as the ability to extend interpersonal meanings to an entire group  · Herbert Blumer (1969) Mead’s Student  · credited with the term â€Å"symbolic interactionism. † He also summarized the basic assumptions of symbolic interaction from Mead’s earlier work Major Assumptions about Self and Family (LaRossa Reitzes, 1993)  · Individuals are not born with a sense of self but develop self concepts through social interaction  · Self concept is developed through the process of interaction and communication with others  · Self concept is shaped by the reactions of significant others and by our perceptions of their reactions  · Self concept, once developed, provides an important motive for behavior.  · Self fulfilling prophecy is the tendency for our expectations, and/or other’s expectations of us to evoke expected responses  · Humans interact and develop roles in the family according to symbols used to describe the family.  · These roles are based on the symbolic meaning attached to each role.  · How family members react to a situation is determined by how they interpret the situation. So, it is important to understand the symbols the family uses to understand their interactions and behaviors.  · In a family, complicated sets of meanings are transmitted through symbols that permit each member to communicate with each other and share experiences (Peterson, 1986). Core Principles of Social Interaction Theory 1. Meaning  · Meaning itself is not inherent in objects  · Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that they have assigned to them  · Meaning arises in the process of interaction between people. that is, it takes place in the context of relationships whether with family or community  · Meanings are handled in and modified through an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with things he or she encounters  · Once people define a situation as real, its very real in its consequences 2. Language  · As human beings we have the unique ability to name things  · As children interact with family, peers, and others, they learn language and, concurrently, they learn the social meanings attached to certain words o That is, language is the source of meaning  · Meaning arises out of social interactions with one another, and language is the vehicle  · In Mead’s view, social life and communication between people are possible only when we understand and can use a common language, (Wood, 1997) 3. Thought or â€Å"Minding†  · An ability distinctly different from animals in that we have the ability to think about things rather than simply reacting instinctually  · An inner conversation with oneself  · A reflective pause through which we modify our interpretation of symbols  · an ability to take the role of â€Å"The Other† Major Premises of Symbolic Interaction Theory 1. Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meaning they have  § These things do not have an inherent or unvarying meaning  § Rather, their meanings differ depending on how we define and respond to them  § how we define, or give meaning to the things we encounter will shape our actions toward them  § Therefore, if we wish to understand human behavior we must know how people define the things— objects, events, individuals, groups, structures—they encounter in their environment 2. The meaning attributed to those things arises out of social interaction with others  § We are not born knowing the meanings of things  § We don’t learn these meanings simply through individual experiences, but rather through the interactions with others 3. These meanings are modified through an interpretive process  § the meanings of the things we encounter, though formed by social interaction, are altered through our understandings  § An individual’s interpretation of the meaning will guide and determine action 7 Major Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism Theory 1. People are unique creatures because of their ability to use symbols. 2. People become distinctively human through their interaction with others. 3. People are conscious and self-reflective beings who actively shape their own behavior. 4. People are purposful creatures who act in and toward situations. 5. Human society consists of people engaging in symbolic interaction. 6. The ‘social act’ should be the fundamental unit of social psychological analysis. 7. To understand people’s social acts, we need to use methods that enable us to discern the meanings they attribute to these acts. Major Concepts, Definitions and Terms  § Identities the self meanings in a role.  § Language – A system of symbolds shared with other memebers of society, used for the purposes of communication and representation  § Looking Glass Self the mental image that results from taking the role of the other. imaging how we look to another person.  § Meaning – the purpose or significance attributed to something. Meaning is determined by how we respond to and make use of it  § Mind – A process of mental activity consisiting of self, interaction, And reflection, based on socially acquired symbols. Does not refer to an inner psychic world separated from society.  · Naming or Labeling Name-calling can be devastating because it forces us to view ourselves. through a warped mirror. Name calling like stupid can lead to a self – fulfilling prophecy. If a person sees himself as stupid he is likely to act stupid.  · Roles refer to â€Å"collections of expectations that define regularized patterns of behavior within family life† (Peterson, 1986, p. 22).  · Roles within the family may include but not be limited to the following: nurturer, socializer, provider, and decision-maker.  · Role-taking is the ability to see oneself as an object, in other words, to be able to see how others perceive oneself.  · Role-taking allows the individual to monitor and coordinate personal behavior in order to facilitate interaction with others and also to anticipate the responses of other individuals.  · Role conflict refers to the situation in which there are conflicting expectations about a specified role.  · Role making is the â€Å"process of improvising, exploring, and judging what is appropriate on the basis of the situation and the response of others at the moment† (Peterson, 1986, p. 23).  · The Self o According to Mead, self does not exist at birth but is developed through interaction with others o emerges from the social interaction of humans in which the individual takes on the role of the other and internalizes the attitudes and perceptions of others through those interactions o The interaction of an individual’s self-conception (I) and the generalized, perceived view that others have of the individual (Me) o The ongoing process of combining the â€Å"I† and the â€Å"ME. † â€Å"I† o An individual’s self-conception o The subjective self â€Å"Me† The â€Å"Generalized Other† o the generalized, perceived view that others have of the individual o The mental image of onseself that is based on expectations and responses from others o The image of the self seen in other peoples reactions  · Self-concept: the image we have of who and what we are (formed in childhood by how significant others treat/respond to us). The self-concept is not fixed and unchanging – if in childhood your teachers tell you you’re stupid, but later in life your teachers and friends begin to treat you as if you’re very bright, your self-concept is likely to change.  · Self-fulfilling prophecy- The tendency for our expectations to evoke responses in others that confirm what we originally anticipated. Each one of us affects how others view themselves. Our expectations evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated. Phenomenon: The way I choose to see the world creates the world I see.  · Significant symbol – A word or gesture that has a common meaning to an individual and others.  · Social Act – Behavior that in some way takes into account the â€Å"other† person, group or social organization, and is guided by what they do. It emerges through the process of communication and interaction.  · Symbol manipulation – The means through which we motivate others to action through the use of symbols Since people are symbolic creatures, they can interpret and talk about their inner experiences, such as their thoughts or desires, thus enhancing communnication and interactions with others Postmodernism is a general and wide-ranging term which is applied to many disciplines, including literature, art, economics, philosophy, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. Postmodernism is largely a reaction to scientific or objective efforts to explain reality. There is no consensus among scholars on the precise definition. In essence, postmodernism is based on the position that reality is not mirrored in human understanding of it, but is rather constructed as the mind tries to understand its own personal reality. Postmodernism is therefore skeptical of explanations that claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person (i. e. postmodernism = relativism). In the postmodern understanding, interpretation is everything; reality only comes into being through our interpretations of what the world means to us individually. Postmodernism relies on concrete experience over abstract principles, arguing that the outcome of ones own experience will necessarily be fallible and relative, rather than certain or universal. Postmodernism postulates that many, if not all, apparent realities are only social constructs and are therefore subject to change. It claims that there is no absolute truth and that the way people perceive the world is subjective and emphasises the role of language, power relations, and motivations in the formation of ideas and beliefs. In particular it attacks the use of sharp binary classifications such as male versus female, straight versus gay, white versus black, and imperial versus colonial; it holds realities to be plural and relative, and to be dependent on who the interested parties are and the nature of these interests. Postmodernist approaches therefore often consider the ways in which social dynamics, such as power and hierarchy, affect human conceptualizations of the world to have important effects on the way knowledge is constructed and used. Postmodernist thought often emphasizes constructivism, idealism, pluralism, relativism, and scepticism in its approaches to knowledge and understanding. Postmodernism is generally considered to have been conceived during the early twentieth century. Postmodernism gained significant popularity in the 1950s and dominated literature and art by the 1960s. [1] Postmodernism has influenced many disciplines, includingreligion, literary criticism, sociology, ethics and morality, linguistics, architecture, history,politics, international relations, anthropology, visual arts, and music. Postmodern Theory – A Broad and Ambiguous View of Reality Postmodern theory is a broad and somewhat ambiguous belief system tied to the philosophical and cultural reaction to the convictions of Modernism (sometimes equated with Humanism). Postmodernism is the philosophical proposal that reality is ultimately inaccessible by human investigation, that knowledge is a social construction, that truth-claims are political power plays, and that the meaning of words is to be determined by readers not authors. In brief, Postmodern theory sees reality as what individuals or social groups make it to be. Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines womens social roles, experience, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as anthropology and sociology, communication,psychoanalysis, economics, literary, education, and philosophy. [1] While generally providing a critique of social relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of womens rights, interests, and issues. Feminist researchers embrace two key tenets: (1) their research should focus on the condition of women in society, and (2) their research must be grounded in the assumption, that women generally experience subordination. Thus, feminist research rejects Webers value-free orientation in favour of being overtly political-doing research in pursuit of gender equality. [2] Themes explored in feminism include discrimination, objectification(especially sexual objectification), oppression, patriarchy,[3][4][5] stereotyping, art history[6] andcontemporary art,[7][8] and aesthetics. [9][10] Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which analyzes the status of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to better womens lives. Feminist theorists have also started to question the differences between women, including how race, class, ethnicity, and age intersect with gender. Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the various ways women have contributed to society. There are four main types of feminist theory that attempt to explain the societal differences between men and women: Gender Differences: The gender difference perspective examines how womens location in, and experience of, social situations differ from mens. For example, cultural feminists look to the different values associated with womanhood and femininity as a reason why men and women experience the social world differently. Other feminist theorists believe that the different roles assigned to women and men within institutions better explain gender difference, including the sexual division of labor in the household. Existential and phenomenological feminists focus on how women have been marginalized and defined as the â€Å"other† in patriarchal societies. Women are thus seen as objects and are denied the opportunity for self-realization. Gender Inequality: Gender-inequality theories recognize that womens location in, and experience of, social situations are not only different but also unequal to mens. Liberal feminists argue that women have the same capacity as men for moral reasoning and agency, but that patriarchy, particularly the sexist patterning of the division of labor, has historically denied women the opportunity to express and practice this